The Renaissance

BY WILL DURANT

The Story of Philosophy

Transition

The Pleasure of Philosophy

Adventures in Genius

BY WILL AND ARIEL DURANT

THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION

1. Our Oriental Heritage

2. The Life of Greece

3. Caesar and Christ

4. The Age of Faith

5. The Renaissance

6. The Reformation

7. The Age of Reason Begins

8. The Age of Louis XIV

9. The Age of Voltaire

10. Rousseau and Revolution

11. The Age of Napoleon

The Lessons of History

Interpretation of Life

A Dual Autobiography

COPYRIGHT 1953 BY WILL DURANT

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

INCLUDING THE RIGHT OF REPRODUCTION

IN WHOLE OR IN PART IN ANY FORM

PUBLISHED BY SIMON AND SCHUSTER

A DIVISION OF GULF & WESTERN CORPORATION

SIMON & SCHUSTER BUILDING

ROCKEFELLER CENTER

1230 AVENUE OF THE AMERICAS

NEW YORK, NEW YORK 10020

www.SimonandSchuster.com

SIMON AND SCHUSTER AND COLOPHON ARE TRADEMARKS

OF SIMON & SCHUSTER

ISBN 0–671–61600–5

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER 53–10016

MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

eISBN-13: 978-1-45164-762-4

TO MY WIFE

Who has shared in a hundred ways

in writing this book

To the Reader

THIS volume, while complete and independent in itself, forms Part V in a history of civilization written on the “integral method” of uniting in one narrative all phases of human activity. The series began in 1935 with Our Oriental Heritage—a history of Egypt and the Near and Middle East to 323 B.C, and of India, China, and Japan to 1930. Part II, The Life of Greece (1939), recorded Greek history and culture from the beginnings, and the history of the Near and Middle East from 323 B.C., to the Roman Conquest in 146 B.C. Part III, Caesar and Christ (1944), carried the story of white civilization to A.D. 325, centered around the rise and fall of Rome, and the first centuries of Christianity. Part IV, The Age of Faith (1950), continued the narrative to 1300, including Byzantine civilization, Islam, Judaism, and Latin Christendom.

The present work aims to give a rounded picture of all phases of human life in the Italy of the Renaissance—from the birth of Petrarch in 1304 to the death of Titian in 1576. The term “Renaissance” will in this book refer only to Italy. The word does not properly apply to such native maturations, rather than exotic rebirths, as took place in France, Spain, England, and the Lowlands in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and even in Italy the designation lays undue stress on that revival of classic letters which was of less importance to Italy than the ripening of its economy and culture into their own characteristic forms.

In order to avoid a superficial repetition of the excellent books already in print on this subject, the scale of treatment has been enlarged as compared with the previous volumes in the series. Moreover, as we approach our own epoch our interests are more widely engaged; we still feel in our blood the sap of those effervescent centuries in which modern Europe began; and their ideas, events, and personalities are especially vital to an understanding of our own minds and times.

I have studied at first hand nearly all the works of art mentioned in this book, but I lack the technical training that would give me the right to express any critical judgments. I have ventured, however, to voice my impressions and preferences. Modern art is absorbed in a forgivable reaction against the Renaissance, and is zealously experimenting to find new forms of beauty or significance. Our appreciation of the Renaissance should not deter us from welcoming every sincere and disciplined attempt to imitate not its products but its originality.

If circumstances permit, a sixth volume, probably under the title of The Age of the Reformation, will appear three or four years hence, covering the history of Christian, Islamic, and Judaic civilization outside of Italy from 1300, and in Italy from 1576 to 1648. The enlarged scale of treatment, and the imminence of senility, make it advisable to plan an end of the series with a seventh volume, The Age of Reason, which may carry the tale to the beginning of the nineteenth century.

Acknowledgments are due to Mr. Joseph Auslander for permission to quote his fine translation of a sonnet by Petrarch; to the Cambridge University Press for permission to quote a paragraph by Richard Garnett from Volume I of The Cambridge Modern History; to my wife for a hundred illuminating suggestions and conversations; to Dr. C. Edward Hopkin for aid in classifying the material; to Miss Mary Kaufman and Miss Flora Kaufman for varied clerical assistance; to Mrs. Edith Digate for her highly competent typing of a difficult manuscript; and to Wallace Brockway for expert editing and advice.

A tardy acknowledgment is due to my publishers. In my long association with them I have found them ideal. They have given me every consideration, have shared with me the expenses of research, and have never let calculations of profit or loss determine our relations. In 1926 they published my Story of Philosophy hoping only to “break even.” We have been together now for twenty-seven years; and it has been for me a fortunate and happy union.

Notes on the Use of This Book

1. Dates of birth and death are omitted from the text, but will be found in the index.

2. Passages in reduced type are for students and may be safely omitted by the general reader.

3. In locating works of art the name of the city will be used to indicate its leading picture gallery, e.g.:

Bergamo, the Accademia Carrara;

Berlin, the Kaiser-Friedrich Museum;

Brescia, the Pinacoteca Martinengo;

Chicago, the Art Institute;

Cleveland, the Museum of Art;

Detroit, the Institute of Art;

Leningrad, the Hermitage;

London, the National Gallery;

Madrid, the Prado;

Mantua, the Palazzo Ducale;

Milan, the Brera Gallery;

Modena, the Pinacoteca Estense;

Naples, the Museo Nazionale;

New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art;

Parma, the Royal Gallery;

Venice, the Academy;

Washington, the National Gallery; but the great galleries of Florence will be distinguished by their names, Uffizi and Pitti, as will the Borghese in Rome.

WILL DURANT

Los Angeles, December 1, 1952

Table of Contents

BOOK I. PRELUDE: 1300–77

Chapter I: THE AGE OF PETRARCH AND BOCCACCIO: 1304–75

I. The Father of the Renaissance

II. Naples and Boccaccio

III. The Poet Laureate

IV. Rienzo’s Revolution

V. The Wandering Scholar

VI. Giotto

VII. The Decameron

VIII. Siena

IX. Milan

X. Venice and Genoa

XI. Twilight of the Trecento

XII. Perspective

Chapter II: THE POPES IN AVIGNON: 1309–77

I. The Babylonian Captivity

II. The Road to Rome

III. The Christian Life

BOOK II: THE FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE: 1378–1534

Chapter III: THE RISE OF THE MEDICI: 1378–1464

I. The Setting

II. The Material Basis

III. Cosimo Pater Patriae

IV. The Humanists

V. Architecture: the Age of Brunellesco

VI. Sculpture

1. Ghiberti

&nb
sp; 2. Donatello

3. Luca della Robbia

VII. Painting

1. Masaccio

2. Fra Angelico

3. Fra Filippo Lippi

VIII. A Miscellany

Chapter IV: THE GOLDEN AGE: 1464–92

I. Piero il Gottoso

II. The Development of Lorenzo

III. Lorenzo the Magnificent

IV. Literature: the Age of Politian

V. Architecture and Sculpture: The Age of Verrocchio

VI. Painting

1. Ghirlandaio

2. Botticelli

VII. Lorenzo Passes

Chapter V: SAVONAROLA AND THE REPUBLIC: 1492–1534

I. The Prophet

II. The Statesman

III. The Martyr

IV. The Republic and the Medici

V. Art under the Revolution

BOOK III: ITALIAN PAGEANT: 1378–1534

Chapter VI: MILAN

I. Background

II. Piedmont and Liguria

III. Pavia

IV. The Visconti: 1378–1447

V. The Sforzas: 1450–1500

VI. Letters

VII. Arts

Chapter VII: LEONARDO DA VINCI

I. Development: 1452–83

II. In Milan: 1482–99

III. In Florence: 1500–01, 1503–06

IV. In Milan and Rome: 1506–16

V. The Man

VI. The Inventor

VII. The Scientist

VIII. In France: 1516–19

IX. The School of Leonardo

Chapter VIII: TUSCANY AND UMBRIA

I. Piero della Francesca

II. Signorelli

III. Siena and Sodoma

IV. Umbria and the Baglioni

V. Perugino

Chapter IX: MANTUA

I. Vittorino da Feltre

II. Andrea Mantegna

III. The First Lady of the World

Chapter X: FERRARA

I. The House of Este

II. The Arts in Ferrara

III. Letters

IV. Ariosto

V. Aftermath

Chapter XI: VENICE AND HER REALM

I. Padua

II. Venetian Economy

III. Venetian Government

IV. Venetian Life

V. Venetian Art

1. Architecture and Sculpture

2. The Bellini

3. From the Bellini to Giorgione

4. Giorgione

5. Titian: the Formative Years

6. Minor Artists and Arts

VI. Venetian Letters

1. Aldus Manutius

2. Bembo

VII. Verona

Chapter XII: EMILIA AND THE MARCHES

I. Correggio

II. Bologna

III. Along the Emilian Way

IV. Urbino and Castiglione

Chapter XIII: THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES

I. Alfonso the Magnanimous

II. Ferrante

BOOK IV: THE ROMAN RENAISSANCE: 1378–1521

Chapter XIV: THE CRISIS IN THE CHURCH: 1378–1447

I. The Papal Schism: 1378–1417

II. The Councils and the Popes

III. The Triumph of the Papacy

Chapter XV: THE RENAISSANCE CAPTURES ROME: 1447–92

I. The Capital of the World

II. Nicholas V: 1447–55

III. Calixtus III: 1455–58

IV. Pius II: 1458–64

V. Paul II: 1464–71

VI. Sixtus IV: 1471–84

VII. Innocent VIII: 1484–92

Chapter XVI: THE BORGIAS

I. Cardinal borgia

II. Alexander VI: 1492–1503

III. The Sinner

IV. Caesar Borgia

V. Lucrezia Borgia

VI. The Collapse of the Borgia Power

Chapter XVII: JULIUS II: 1503–13

I. The Warrior

II. Roman Architecture: 1492–1513

III. The Young Raphael

1. Development: 1483–1508

2. Raphael and Julius II: 1508–13

IV. Michelangelo

1. Youth: 1475–1505

2. Michelangelo and Julius II: 1505–13

Chapter XVIII: LEO X: 1513–21

I. The Boy Cardinal

II. The Happy Pope

III. Scholars

IV. Poets

V. The Recovery of Classic Art

VI. Michelangelo and Leo X: 1513–20

VII. Raphael and Leo X: 1513–20

VIII. Agostino Chigi

IX. Raphael: the Last Phase

X. Leo Politicus

BOOK V: DEBACLE

Chapter XIX: THE INTELLECTUAL REVOLT

I. The Occult

II. Science

III. Medicine

IV. Philosophy

V. Guicciardini

VI. Machiavelli

1. The Diplomat

2. The Author and the Man

3. The Philosopher

4. Considerations

Chapter XX: THE MORAL RELEASE

I. The Founts and Forms of Immorality

II. The Morals of the Clergy

III. Sexual Morality

IV. Renaissance Man

V. Renaissance Woman

VI. The Home

VII. Public Morality

VIII. Manners and Amusements

IX. Drama

X. Music

XI. Perspective

Chapter XXI: THE POLITICAL COLLAPSE: 1494–1534

I. France Discovers Italy: 1494–95

II. The Attack Renewed: 1496–1505

III. The League of Cambrai: 1508–16

IV. Leo and Europe: 1513–21

V. Adrian VI: 1522–23

VI. Clement VII: the First Phase

VII. The Sack of Rome: 1527

VIII. Charles Triumphant: 1527–30

IX. Clement VII and the Arts

X. Michelangelo and Clement VII: 1520–34

XI. The End of an Age: 1528–34

BOOK VI: FINALE: 1534–76

Chapter XXII: SUNSET IN VENICE

I. Venice Reborn

II. Aretino

III. Titian and the Kings

IV. Tintoretto

V. Veronese

VI. Perspective

Chapter XXIII: THE WANING OF THE RENAISSANCE

I. The Decline of Italy

II. Science and Philosophy

III. Literature

IV. Twilight in Florence

V. Benvenuto Cellini

VI. Lesser Lights

VII. Michelangelo: the Last Phase

ENVOI

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NOTES

INDEX

List of Illustrations

The page number referred to in the captions is for a discussion of the particular painting or the artist, and sometimes both.

Part I. This section follows page 64

FIG. 1—GIOTTO: The Flight into Egypt

FIG. 2—SIMONE MARTINI: The Annunciation

FIG. 3—LORENZO GHIBERTI: Doors of the Baptistery

FIG. 4—DONATELLO: Crucifixion

FIG. 5—DONATELLO: David

FIG. 6—DONATELLO: Annunciation

FIG. 7—LUCA DELLA ROBBIA: Madonna and Child

FIG. 8—DONATELLO: Gattamelata

FIG. 9—MASACCIO: The Tribute Money

FIG. 10—FRA ANGELICO: The Annunciation

FIG. 11—FRA FILIPPO LIPPI: Virgin Adoring the Child

FIG. 12—ANDREA DEL VERROCHIO: The Baptism of Christ

FIG. 13—DOMENICO GHIRLANDAIO: Portrait of Count Sassetti (?) and Grandson

FIG. 14—SANDRO BOTTICELLI: The Birth of Venus

Part II. This section follows page 224

FIG. 15—ANDREA DEL SARTO: Madonna delle Arpie

FIG. 16—CRISTOFORO SOLARI: Tomb Effigies of Lodovico il Moro and Beatrice d’Este

FIG. 17—AMBROGIA DA PREDIS o
r LEONARDO DA VINCI: Portrait of Bianca Sforza

FIG. 18—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Virgin of the Rocks

FIG. 19—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Self-portrait

FIG. 20—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Mona Lisa

FIG. 21—PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA: Portrait of Duke Federigo da Montefeltro

FIG. 22—LUCA SIGNORELLI: The End of the World

FIG. 23—IACOPO DELLA QUERCIA: The Nativity

FIG. 24—IACOPO DELLA QUERCIA: Noah’s Ark

FIG. 25—PERUGINO: Self-portrait

FIG. 26—PINTURRICCHIO: The Nativity

FIG. 27—ANDREA MANTEGNA: Lodovico Gonzaga and His Family

FIG. 28—ANDREA MANTEGNA: Adoration of the Shepherds

FIG. 29—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Portrait of Isabella d’Este

FIG. 30—TITIAN: Portrait of Isabella d’Este

Part III. This section follows page 384

FIG. 31—GIOVANNI BELLINI: Madonna degli Alberetti

FIG. 32—GIOVANNI BELLINI: Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredano

FIG. 33—GIORGIONE: Sleeping Venus

FIG. 34—GIORGIONE: Concert Champêtre

FIG. 35—TITIAN: Sacred and Profane Love

FIG. 36—TITIAN: Venus and Adonis

FIG. 37—VITTORE CARPACCIO: The Dream of St. Ursula

FIG. 38—TITIAN: Assumption of the Virgin

FIG. 39—CORREGGIO: Sts. John and Augustine

FIG. 40—CORREGGIO: [The Mystic] Marriage of St. Catherine

FIG. 41—PARMIGIANINO: Madonna della Rosa

FIG. 42—Majolica from Faenza

FIG. 43—RAPHAEL: The Pearl Madonna

FIG. 44—RAPHAEL: Portrait of Pope Julius II

FIG. 45—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Pietà

FIG. 46—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Creation of Adam

Part IV. This section follows page 608

FIG. 47—RAPHAEL and GIULIO ROMANO: The Transfiguration

FIG. 48—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Tomb of Lorenzo de’ Medici

FIG. 49—TITIAN: Portrait of Aretino

FIG. 50—TITIAN: Portrait of Pope Paul III

FIG. 51—TITIAN: Portrait of Charles V

FIG. 52—TITIAN: Venus of Urbino

FIG. 53—TITIAN: Portrait of a Young Englishman

FIG. 54—TITIAN: Self-portrait

FIG. 55—TINTORETTO: The Miracle of St. Mark

FIG. 56—TINTORETTO: Presentation of the Virgin

FIG. 57—PAOLO VERONESE: Self-portrait

FIG. 58—PAOLO VERONESE: Portrait of Daniele Barbaro

FIG. 59—PAOLO VERONESE: The Rape of Europa

FIG. 60—PAOLO VERONESE: Mars and Venus

FIG. 61—DANIELE DA VOLTERRA: Bust of Michelangelo Buonarroti

BOOK I

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